M. Sc. Plant Protection

Entomology (ENT) (M.Sc.)

1. Insect Morphology
2. Insect Anatomy and Physiology
3. Insect Taxonomy
4. Insect Ecology
5. Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds
6. Toxicology of Insecticides
7. Host Plant Resistance
8. Concepts of Integrated Pest Management
9. Pests of Field Crops
10. Pests of Horticultural and Plantation Crops
11. Post Harvest Entomology
12. Insect Vectors of Plant Pathogens
13. Principles of Acarology
14. Vertebrate Pest Management
15. Techniques in Plant Protection
16. Apiculture
17. Sericulture
18. Lac Culture
19. Molecular Approaches in Entomology
20. Plant Quarantine, Biosafety and Biosecurity
21. Edible and Therapeutic Insects
22. Medical and Veterinary Entomology
23. Forest Entomology

Plant Pathology (PL PATH) (M.Sc.)

1. Mycology
2. Plant Virology
3. Plant Pathogenic Prokaryotes
4. Plant Nematology
5. Principles of Plant Pathology
6. Techniques in Detection and Diagnosis of Plant   Diseases
7. Principles of Plant Disease Management
8. Epidemiology and Forecasting of Plant Diseases
9. Disease Resistance in Plants
10. Ecology of Soil-borne Plant Pathogens
11. Chemicals and Botanicals in Plant Disease Management
12. Detection and Management of Seed Borne  Pathogens
13. Biological Control of Plant Diseases
14. Integrated Disease Management
15. Diseases of Field and Medicinal Crops
16. Diseases of Fruits, Plantation and Ornamental Crops
17. Diseases of Vegetable and Spices Crops
18. Post Harvest Diseases
19. Plant Quarantine and Regulatory Measures

Nematology (NEMA) (M.Sc.)

1. Principles of Nematology
2. Principles of Taxonomy
3. Structural Organization of Nematodes
4. Nematode Systematics
5. Nematological Techniques
6. Nematode Diseases of Crops
7. Nematode Biology and Physiology
8. Nematode Ecology
9. Nematode Interactions with Other Organisms
10. Nematode Management
11. Beneficial Nematodes
12. Principles of Integrated Pest Management
13. Disease Resistance in Plants
14. Plant Quarantine, Biosafety and Biosecurity
15. IPM in Protected Cultivation

Entomology (ENT) (M.Sc.)

1. Insect Morphology

Content: External Morphology: Insect body wall structure, cuticular outgrowths, colouration and special integumentary structures in insects, body tagmata, sclerites and segmentation. Head- Origin, structure and modification; mouthparts, antennae, their types and functioning; tentorium and neck sclerites. Thorax- Areas and sutures of tergum, sternum and pleuron, pterothorax; wings: structure and modifications, venation, wing coupling apparatus and mechanism of flight; legs: structure and modifications. Abdomen- Segmentation and appendages; genitalia and their modifications; embryonic and post-embryonic development. Insect sense organs (mechano-, photo- and chemo- receptors); organogenensis at pupal stage; insect defense; chaetotaxy; morphological traits in relation to forensic entomology. Types of immature stages in insect orders, morphology of egg, nymph/ larva and pupa, identification of different immature stages of crop pests and stored product insects. Comparative study of life history strategies in hemi-metabola and holometabola, immature stages as ecological and evolutionary adaptations, significance of immature stages for pest management.

Practical: Preparation of permanent mounts of different body parts and their appendages of taxonomic importance including male and female genitalia; Dissection of genitalia. Types of immature stages in insects; their collection, rearing and preservation; Identification of immature insects to orders and families, in endopterygote orders, viz., Diptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and Coleoptera using key;

1. Insect Anatomy and Physiology

Content: Scope and importance of insect physiology; physiology of integument, moulting, chemistry of cuticle, biosysthesis of chitin; growth, hormonal control, metamorphosis and diapause; pheromone secretion, transmission, perception and reception. Physiology and mechanism of digestion, circulation, respiration, excretion, reproduction, secretion (exocrine and endocrine glands) and nerve impulse transmission in insects. Importance of insect nutrition- role of vitamins, proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, minerals and other food constituents; extra and intra-cellular microorganisms and their role in physiology; artificial diets.

Practical: Latest analytical techniques for analysis of free amino acids of haemolymph; Determination of chitin in insect cuticle; Examination and count of insect haemocytes; preparation and evaluation of various diets; Consumption, utilization and digestion of natural and artificial diets.

1. Insect Taxonomy

Content: History of insect classification; principles of systematics and its importance. Identification, purpose, methods character matrix, taxonomic keys. Descriptions subjects of descriptions, characters, nature of characters, analogy v/s homology, parallel v/s convergent evolution, intraspecific variation in characters, polythetic and polymorphic taxa, sexual dimorphism. Brief evolutionary history of insectsintroduction to phylogeny of insects and Classification of Superclass Hexapoda – Classes – Ellipura (Collembola, Protura), Diplura and Insecta- and the Orders contained. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, Phylocode, its brief explanation and uses. Process of speciation and interbreeding allopatric species. Molecular systemnatics, DNA barcoding, karyological and biochemical approaches in taxonomy. Insect labeling protocols and procedures. Distinguishing characters, general biology, habits and habitats of insect orders and economically important families contained in them. Collembola, Protura, Diplura. Class Insecta: Subclass Apterygota – Archaeognatha, Thysanura. Subclass: Pterygota, Division Palaeoptera – Odonata and Ephemeroptera. Division: Neoptera: Subdivision: Orthopteroid and Blattoid Orders (=Oligoneoptera: Plecoptera, Blattodea, Isoptera, Mantodea, Grylloblattodea, Dermaptera, Orthoptera, Phasmatodea, Mantophasmatodea, Embioptera, Zoraptera), Subdivision: Hemipteroid Orders

(=Paraneoptera): Psocoptera, Phthiraptera, Thysanoptera and Hemiptera. economically important families contained in them (Continued). Division Neoptera – Subdivision Endopterygota, Section Neuropteroid- Coleopteroid Orders: Strepsiptera, Megaloptera, Raphidioptera, Neuroptera and Coleoptera, Section Panorpoid Orders Mecoptera, Siphonaptera, Diptera, Trichoptera, Lepidoptera, and Section Hymenopteroid Orders: Hymenoptera.

Practical: Study of Orders of insects and their identification using taxonomic keys; Keying out families of insects of different major Orders: Odonata, Orthoptera, Blattodea, Mantodea, Isoptera, Hemiptera, Thysanoptera, Phthiraptera, Neuroptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera; Field visits to collect insects of different orders.

1. Insect Ecology

Content: History and definition. Basic Concepts. Organisation of the Biological world. Plato’s Natural Balance vs Ecological Dynamics as the modern view. Abundance and diversity of insects, Estimates and Causal factors. Study of abundance and distribution and relation between the two. Basic principles of abiotic factors and their generalised action on insects. Implications for abundance and distribution of organisms including insects- Law of the Minimum, Law of Tolerance, and biocoenosis, Systems approach to ecology. Basic concepts of abundance- Model vs Real world. Population growth basic models – Exponential vs Logistic models. Discrete vs Continuous growth models. Concepts of Carrying capacity, Environmental Resistance and Optimal yield. Vital Statistics- Life Tables and their application to insect biology. Survivorship curves. Case studies of insect life tables. Population dynamics- Factors affecting abundance- Environmental factors, dispersal and migration, Seasonality in insects. Classification and mechanisms of achieving different seasonality- Diapause (Quiescence) – aestivation, hibernation. Biotic factors- Food as a limiting factor for distribution and abundance, Nutritional Ecology. Food chain- web and ecological succession. Interspecific interactions- Basic factors governing the interspecific interactions- Classification of interspecific interactions – The argument of cost-benefit ratios. Competition- Lotka-Volterra model, Concept of niche ecological homologues, competitive exclusion. Evolution of mimicry, colouration, concept of predator satiation; evolution of life history strategies. Community ecology- Concept of guild, Organisation of communities- Hutchinson Ratio, May’s d/w, Relation between the two and their association with Dyar’s Law and Przibram’s law. Relative distribution of organisms, Concept of diversity- the Wallcian view. Assessment of diversity. Diversity- stability debate, relevance to pest management. Pest management as applied ecology. Climate change and insect pest/ natural enemy population; ecological engineering.

Practical: Types of distributions of organisms; Methods of sampling insects, estimation of densities of insects and understanding the distribution parameters- Measures of central tendencies, Poisson Distribution, Negative Binomial Distribution; Determination of optimal sample size. Learning to fit basic population growth models and testing the goodness of fit; Fitting Holling’s Disc equation; Assessment of prey-predator densities from natural systems and understanding the correlation between the two; Assessing and describing niche of some insects of a single guild; Calculation of niche breadth, activity breadth and diagrammatic representation of niches of organisms; Calculation of diversity indices- Shannon’s, Simpson’s and Avalanche Index and understanding their associations and parameters that affect their values; Problem solving in ecology. Field visits to understand different ecosystems and to study insect occurrence in these systems.

1. Biological Control of Insect Pests And Weeds

Content: History, principles and scope of biological control; important groups of parasitoids, predators and pathogens; principles of classical biological control- importation, augmentation and conservation. History of insect pathology, infection of insects by bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, rickettsiae, spiroplasma and nematodes. Biology, adaptation, host seeking behaviour of predatory and parasitic groups of insects. Role of insect pathogenic nematodes, viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, etc., their mode of action. Biological control of weeds using insects. Epizootiology, symptomatology and etiology of diseases caused by the above and the factors controlling these. Defense mechanisms in insects against pathogens. Mass production of quality bio-control agents- techniques, formulations, economics, field release/ application and evaluation. Development of insectaries, their maintenance. Successful biological control projects, analysis, trends and future possibilities of biological control. Importation of natural enemies- Quarantine regulations, biotechnology in biological control. Semiochemicals in biological control.

Practical: Identification of common natural enemies of crop pests (parasitoids, predators, microbes) and weed killers; Visits to bio-control laboratories to learn rearing and mass production of egg, egglarval, larval, larval-pupal and pupal parasitoids, common predators, microbes and their laboratory hosts, phytophagous natural enemies of weeds; Field collection of parasitoids and predators. Hands-on training in culturing, identification of common insect pathogens. Quality control and registration standards for biocontrol agents.

1. Toxicology of Insecticides

Content: Definition and scope of insecticide toxicology; history of chemical control; pesticide use and pesticide industry in India. Classification of insecticides and acaricides based on mode of entry, mode of action and chemical nature; categorization of insecticides on the basis of toxicity – criteria for bees, beneficial insects and other insects in general; structure and mode of action of organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids, tertiary amines, neonicotinoids, oxadiazines, phenyl pyrozoles, insect growth regulators, microbials, botanicals, new promising compounds/ new insecticide molecules; nanopesticides; drawbacks of insecticide abuse. Principles of toxicology; evaluation of insecticide toxicity; joint action of insecticidessynergism, potentiation and antagonism; factors affecting toxicity of insecticides; insecticide compatibility, selectivity and phytotoxicity. bioassay definition, objectives, criteria, factors, problems and solutions. Insecticide metabolism; insect-pest resistance to insecticides; mechanisms and types of resistance; insecticide resistance management and pest resurgence. Insecticide residues, their significance and environmental implications; procedures of insecticide residue analysis. Insecticide Act, registration procedures, label claim, and quality control of insecticides; safe use of insecticides; diagnosis and treatment of insecticide poisoning.

Practical: Insecticide formulations and mixtures; Laboratory and field evaluation of bio-efficacy of insecticides; Bioassay techniques; Probit analysis; Evaluation of insecticide toxicity; Toxicity to beneficial insects; Pesticide appliances; Working out doses and concentrations of pesticides; Procedures of residue analysis.

1. Host Plant Resistance

Content: History and importance of resistance; principles, classification, components, types and mechanisms of resistance. Insect-host plant relationships; theories and basis of host plant selection in phytophagous insects. Chemical ecology, tritrophic relations, volatiles and secondary plant substances; basis of resistance. Induced resistance – acquired and induced systemic resistance. Factors affecting plant resistance including biotypes and measures to combat them. Screening techniques; breeding for insect resistance in crop plants; exploitation of wild plant species; gene transfer, successful examples of resistant crop varieties in India and world. Role of biotechnology in plant resistance to insects.

Practical: Screening techniques for measuring resistance; Measurement of plant characters and working out their correlations with plant resistance; Testing of resistance in important crops; Bioassay of plant extracts of susceptible/ resistant varieties; Demonstration of antibiosis, tolerance and antixenosis.

1. Concepts of Integrated Pest Management

Content: History, origin, definition and evolution of various terminologies. Importance of resistance, principles, classification, components, types and mechanisms of resistance. National and international level crop protection organizations; insecticide regulatory bodies; synthetic insecticide, bio-pesticide and pheromone registration procedures; label claim of pesticides – the pros and cons. Concept and philosophy, ecological principles, economic threshold concept and economic consideration. Insect-host plant relationships; theories and basis of host plant selection in phytophagous insects. Tools of pest management and their integration- legislative, quarantine regulations, cultural, physical and mechanical methods; semiochemicals, biotechnological and bio-rational approaches in IPM. Pest survey and surveillance, forecasting, types of surveys including remote sensing methods, factors affecting surveys; political, social and legal implications of IPM; pest risk analysis; pesticide risk analysis; costbenefit ratios and partial budgeting; case studies of successful IPM programmes. ITK-s in IPM, area-wide IPM and IPM for organic farming; components of ecological engineering with successful examples. Characterization of agro-ecosystems; sampling methods and factors affecting sampling; population estimation methods; crop loss assessment direct losses, indirect losses, potential losses, avoidable losses, unavoidable losses; global and Indian scenario of crop losses. Computation of EIL and ETL; crop modeling; designing and implementing IPM system. Screening techniques; breeding for insect resistance in crop plants; exploitation of wild plant species; gene transfer, successful examples of resistant crop varieties in India and world.

1. Pests of Field Crops

Content: Systematic position, identification, distribution, host-range, bionomics, nature and extent of damage, seasonal abundance and management of insect and mite pests and vectors. Insect pest scenario in relation to climate change. Polyphagous pests: grasshoppers, locusts, termites, white grubs, hairy caterpillars, and non-insect pests (mites, birds, rodents, snails, slugs, etc.). Insect pests of cereals and millets and their management. Insect pests of pulses, tobacco, oilseeds and their management. Insect pests of fibre crops, forage crops, sugarcane and their management.

Practical: Field visits, collection and identification of important pests and their natural enemies; Detection and estimation of infestation and losses in different crops; Study of life history of important insect pests.

1. Pests of Horticultural and Plantation Crops

Content: Systematic position, identification, distribution, host range, bionomics and seasonal abundance, nature and extent of damage and management of insect pests of various crops. Fruit Crops- mango, guava, banana, jack, papaya, pomegranate, litchi, grapes, ber, fig, citrus, aonla, pineapple, apple, peach and other temperate fruits. Vegetable crops- tomato, potato, radish, carrot, beetroot, cole crops, French beans, chow-chow, brinjal, okra, all gourds, drumstick, leafy vegetables, etc. Plantation crop- coffee, tea, rubber, coconut, arecanut, cashew, cocoa, etc.; Spices and Condiments- pepper, cardamom, clove, nutmeg, chillies, turmeric, ginger, beetlevine, etc. Ornamental, medicinal and aromatic plants and pests in polyhouses/ protected cultivation.

Practical: Collection and identification of important pests and their natural enemies on different crops; Study of life history of important insect pests and non-insect pests.

1. Post Harvest Entomology

Content: Introduction, history of storage entomology, concepts of storage entomology and significance of insect pests. Post-harvest losses in toto vis-à-vis total production of food grains in India. Scientific and socio-economic factors responsible for grain losses. Concept of seed vault. Important pests namely insects, mites, rodents, birds and microorganisms associated with stored grain and field conditions including agricultural products; traditional storage structures; association of stored grain insects with fungi and mites, their systematic position, identification, distribution, host range, biology, nature and extent of damage, role of field and cross infestations and natural enemies, type of losses in stored grains and their effect on quality including biochemical changes.

Ecology of insect pests of stored commodities/ grains with special emphasis on role of moisture, temperature and humidity in safe storage of food grains and commodities. Stored grain deterioration process, physical and biochemical changes and consequences. Grain storage- types of storage structures i.e., traditional, improved and modern storage structures in current usage. Ideal seeds and commodities’ storage conditions.

Important rodent pests associated with stored grains and their non-chemical and chemical control including fumigation of rat burrows. Role of bird pests and their management. Control of infestation by insect pests, mites and microorganisms. Preventive measures- Hygiene/ sanitation, disinfestations of stores/ receptacles, legal methods. Curative measures- Non-chemical control measures- ecological, mechanical, physical, cultural, biological and engineering. Chemical control prophylactic and curative- Characteristics of pesticides, their use and precautions in their handling with special emphasis on fumigants. Insecticide resistance in stored product pests and its management; recent advances (MAS, PPP, HS) in storage pest management; integrated approaches to stored grain pest management.

Practical: Collection, identification and familiarization with the stored grains/ seed insect pests and nature of damage caused by them; Detection of hidden insect infestation in stored food grains; Estimation of uric acid content in infested produce; estimation of losses in stored food grains; Determination of moisture content in stored food grains; Familiarization of storage structures, demonstration of preventive and curative measures including fumigation techniques; Treatment of packing materials and their effect on seed quality; Field visits to save grain campaign, central warehouse and FCI warehouses and institutions engaged in research or practice of grain storage like CFTRI, Mysore; IGSMRI, Hapur, etc. (only where logistically feasible).

1. Insect Vectors of Plant Pathogens

Content: History of developments in the area of insects as vectors of plant pathogens. Important insect vectors and their characteristics; mouth parts and feeding processes of important insect vectors. Efficiency of transmission. Transmission of plant viruses and fungal pathogens. Relation between viruses and their vectors. Transmission of plant viruses by aphids, whiteflies, mealy bugs and thrips. Transmission of mycoplasma and bacteria by leaf hoppers and plant hoppers. Transmission of plant viruses by psyllids, beetles and mites. Epidemiology and management of insect transmitted diseases through vector management.

Practical: Identification of common vectors of plant pathogens- aphids, leafhoppers, whiteflies, thrips, beetles, nematodes; Culturing and handling of vectors; demonstration of virus transmission through vectors- aphids, leafhoppers and whiteflies; Vector rearing and maintenance; Estimating vector transmission efficiency, studying vector-virus host interaction.

1. Principles of Acarology

Content: History of Acarology; importance of mites as a group; habitat, collection and preservation of mites. Soil arthropods and their classification, habitats and their identification. Introduction to morphology and biology of mites and ticks. Broad classification major orders and important families of Acari including diagnostic characteristics. Estimation of populations; sampling and extraction methods for soil arthropods. Economic importance, seasonal occurrence, nature of damage, host range of mite pests of different crops, mite pests in polyhouses, mite pests of stored products and honeybees. Management of mites using acaricides, phytoseiid predators, fungal pathogens, etc. Culturing of phytophagous, parasitic and predatory mites. Mode of action of acaricides, resistance of mites and ticks to acaricides, its management.

Practical: Collection of mites from plants, soil and animals; Extraction of mites from soil, plants and stored products; Preparation of mounting media and slide mounts; External morphology of mites; Identification of mites up to family level using keys; Studying different rearing techniques for mites.

1. Vertebrate Pest Management

Content: Introduction to vertebrate pests of different crops; biology of vertebrate pests such as rodents, birds and other mammals. Bio-ecology of birds of agricultural importance, patterns of pest damage and assessment, roosting and nesting systems in birds; management of pestiferous birds; conservation of predatory birds. Bio-ecology of rodents of agricultural importance, patterns of pest damage and assessment, burrowing pattern and habitat of rodents; management of pestiferous rodents. Bio-ecology of higher vertebrates of agricultural importance, patterns of damage and assessment, their habitat; management of pestiferous vertebrates. Management strategies- physical (trapping, acoustics and visual), chemical (poisons, repellents, fumigants and anticoagulants), biological (predators, parasites), cropping practices, alteration of habitats, diversion baiting and other eco-friendly methods – Operational practices- baiting, equipments and educative programmes.

Practical: Identification of important rodents, birds and other vertebrate pests of agriculture, food preference and hoarding; Social behaviour, damage assessment, field survey, population estimation, management strategies: preventive and curative methods.

1. Techniques in Plant Protection

Practical: Pest control equipments, principles, operation, maintenance, selection, and application of pesticides; Release of bio-control agents; Seed dressing, soaking, root-dip treatment, dusting, spraying, and pesticide application through irrigation water; Application of drones in plant protection; Soil sterilization, solarization, deep ploughing, flooding, techniques to check the spread of pests through seed, bulbs, corms, cuttings and cut flowers; Uses of light, transmission and scanning electron microscopy; Protein isolation from the pest and host plant and its quantification using spectrophotometer and molecular weight determination using SDS/ PAGE; Use of tissue culture techniques in plant protection; Computer application for predicting/ forecasting pest attack and identification.

1. Apiculture

Content: Historical development of apiculture at global level and in India; Classification of bees; global distribution of genus Apis and races; Morphology and anatomy of honey bee; Honey bee biology, ecology, adaptations; Honey bee behaviour – nest founding, comb construction, brood care, defense, other in-house and foraging activities; Bee pheromones; Honey bee communication. Commercial beekeeping as an enterprise; Design and use of bee hives; Apicultural equipment; Seasonal bee husbandry; Honey bee nutrition and artificial diets; Absconding, swarming, drifting – causes and management; Curbing drone rearing; Laying worker menace – causes, signs and management. Bee genetics; Principles and procedures of bee breeding; Screening of honey bee colonies; Techniques in mass queen bee rearing; Mating nuclei and their establishment; Selective mating; Queen bee management; Bee packages. Ectoparasitic and endoparasitic bee mites – biology, ecology, nature and symptoms of damage, management tactics; Wax moths, wasps and ants – biology, ecology, nature and symptoms of damage, management tactics; Predatory birds, their damage potential and management tactics; Pesticide poisoning to honey bees, signs and protection; Protocols in evaluation of pesticide toxicity to honey bees. Honey – composition, properties, crystallization, post-harvest handling and processing; Honey quality standards and assessment; Apicultural diversification – potential and profitability; Production/ collection of bee pollen, propolis, royal jelly, bee venom and bees wax and their post-harvest handling; Apitherapy; Value addition of hive products; Development of apiculture project. Non-Apis pollinators, their augmentation and conservation; Role of bee pollinators in augmenting crop productivity; Managed bee pollination of crops.

Practical: Morphological characteristics of honey bee; Mouthparts; digestive, respiratory and reproductive adaptations in different castes of honey bees; Recording of colony performance; Seasonal bee husbandry practices; Swarming, queenlessness, swarming, laying workers menaces, etc. and their remedies; Innovative techniques in mass queen bee rearing; selection and breeding of honey bees; Instrumental insemination; formulation of artificial diets and their feeding; Production technologies for various hive products; Bee enemies and diseases and their management; Recording pollination efficiency; Application of various models for determining pollination requirement of crop; Developing a beekeeping project.

1. Sericulture

Content: History of Sericulture, importance, organizations involved in sericulture activities, silkworm types, distribution, area and silk production. Mulberry species, ecological requirements, cultivation, improved varieties, propagation methods, sapling production, planting and pruning techniques; pest and diseases, management strategies; intercropping, water and weed management. Food plants of eri silkworm, castor cultivation, intercultural operations, nutrient and water management; method of harvest; host plants of Tasar, nursery and cultivation, selection of seed, soaking and heap making, pruning techniques. Food plants of Muga silkworm, Som and Soalu propagation methods; nursery techniques; intercultural operations and weed management. Silkworm origin – classification based on voltinism, moultinism, geographical distribution and genetic nature – pure races –multivoltine and bivoltine races – cross breeds – bivoltine hybrids –Races and hybrids of mulberry, eri, tasar and muga silkworm- Morphology and biology of silkworm, sex limited characters; anatomy of digestive and excretory systems of larva; structure and function of silk glands. Rearing house, types, disinfection, room and bed disinfectants; egg incubation methods, Chawki rearing, feeding, cleaning and spacing; rearing of late age worms, feeding, cleaning, spacing and moulting care; mountages, cocoon harvesting and marketing; pests and diseases of silkworms and their management. Post cocoon technology, stifling, cocoon cooking, brushing, reeling, re-reeling, bleaching, degumming, dyeing, printing and weaving, different reeling machines; value addition in sericulture; economics of sericulture.

Practical: Morphology of mulberry plants; Identification of popular mulberry genotypes; Nursery bed and main field preparation; Planting methods; Identification of nutrient deficiency symptoms; Identification of weeds; Pruning and harvesting methods; Identification of pests and diseases of mulberry–Terminalia arjuna, Terminalia tomentosa, Som and Soalu- Nursery and pruning techniques – Intercultural

operations; Morphology of silkworm – Identification of races – Dissection of mouth parts and silk glands – Disinfection techniques – rearing facilities – silkworm rearing – feeding, cleaning and spacing – Identification of pests and diseases of mulberry silkworm – hyperparasitoids and mass multiplication techniques – silkworm egg production technology –Tasar, Eri and muga silkworms – rearing methods–pests and diseases of non-mulberry silkworms – Visit to grainage, cocoon market and silk reeling centre – Economics of silkworm rearing.

1. Lac Culture

Content: History of lac production; importance, potential of lac production in India; organizations involved in lac production activities; strains of lac insects and lac crops – distribution, area and production of different strains of lac. Steps and operation of lac production; lac host plant species, ecological requirements, their cultivation; seasons of host plants, harvest time of host plants, rearing seasons; grouping of host trees, pruning methods, timing; lac host plant pests and diseases; management strategies. Basic morphology and taxonomy of lac insect, strains of lac insect and their characteristics; composition of lac; biology of lac insect, species diversity and distribution. Introduction, lac insect-host plant interaction; selection of brood lac, local practices, improved alternatives, coupe system; propagation of lac insects: natural self inoculation, artificial inoculation; inoculation process and duration; removal of phunki, harvesting of lac, immature harvesting, mature harvesting and time of harvesting. Predators and parasitoids of lac insect, hyperparasites, diseases and their management. Lac production stages; factors affecting yield and quality of shellac. Pure stock of host plants (kusum, palas, ber, pigeonpea, semialata); alternative method; technology of brood preserving. Host-specific technologies – cultivation on specific host plants; integration of lac cultivation with agro-forestry and horticulture; socio-economic potential of lac; export-import of lac/ lac products; marketing of lac and its products. Lac processing and value addition; entrepreneurship development.

Practical: Lac host cultivation and lac production practices; Equipments for lac production; Conventional and advanced methods; Coupe system of lac production; Cultivation of suitable host plants; Pruning of host trees; Herbarium of host plants; Strains of lac insects; Brood lac selection and treatment for pest management; Slide preparation of adult and immature stages; Inoculation of host tree; Identification of natural enemies of lac insect and their management; Molecular characterization of lac insect where possible; Harvesting; Process of manufacture of seed lac, shell lac from stick lac; Grading of seed lac and shellac; Marketing of lac products and by products.

1. Molecular Approaches In Entomology

Content: Introduction to molecular biology, techniques used in molecular biology. DNA recombinant technology, identification of genes/ nucleotide sequences for traits of interest, techniques of interest in plants and microbes. Genes of interest in entomological research- marker genes for sex identification, peptides and neuropeptides, JH esterase, St toxins and venoms, chitinase, Plantderived enzyme inhibitors, protease inhibitors, trypsin inhibitors, á-amylase inhibitors, lectins, terepenes and terpenoids; genes of non-plant origin, Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxins, mode of action of cry genes, classification and properties, synthetic Bt toxin genes, Other toxin genes, genes derived from entomophagous viruses, transgenic plants for pest resistance. Genetically engineered microbes and parasitoids in biological control-Genetic engineering in baculoviruses and fungal biocontrol agents for greater efficacy against insect pests. Effects of transgenic plants on pest biology and development, resistance management strategies in transgenic crops, molecular mechanism of insecticide resistance. Genetic-based methods for agricultural insect pest management-insect pest management through sterile insect technique and relase of insects carrying a dominant lethal gene. Methods and application of insect trangenesis, transgenics in silkworm and honeybees. Molecular tools for taxonomy and phylogeny of insectpests, DNA-based diagnostics. Nano technology and its application.

Practical: Isolation of DNA/ RNA; Agarose gel electrophoresis of DNA, quantification of DNA by spectrophotometric and agarose gel analysis, PCR amplification of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene (cox1) and 16S rRNA gene, cloning of PCR amplicons in standard plasmid vectors for sequencing, confirmation of the insert, miniprep of recombinant plasmid DNA, BLAST analysis and multiple sequence alignment of the sequence with sequences already available in GenBank; Isolation of host plant proteins, SDS-PAGE of the isolated proteins.

1. Plant Quarantine, Bio-safety and Bio-security

Content: Definition of pest, pesticides and transgenics as per Govt. notification; relative importance; quarantine – domestic and international. Quarantine restrictions in the movement of agricultural produce, seeds and planting material; case histories of exotic pests/ diseases and their status. Plant protection organization in India. Acts related to registration of pesticides and transgenics. Insecticide regulatory bodies, synthetic insecticides, bio-pesticides and pheromone registration procdures. History of quarantine legislations, PQ Order 2003. Environmental Acts, Industrial registration; APEDA, Import and Export of bio-control agents. Identification of pest/ disease free areas; contamination of food with toxigens, microorganisms and their elimination; Symptomatic diagnosis and other techniques to detect pest/ pathogen infestations; VHT and other safer techniques of disinfestation/ salvaging of infected material. WTO regulations; non-tariff barriers; pest risk analysis, good laboratory practices for pesticide laboratories; pesticide industry; sanitary and phytosanitary measures. Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) for plant biosecurity, pest/ disease and epidemic management, strategies for combating risks and costs associated with agroterrorism event, mitigation planning, integrated approach for biosecurity. Biosafety, policies and regulatory mechanism, Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and its implications, issues related to release of genetically modified crops.

1. Edible and Therapeutic Insects

Content: Edible and therapeutic insects: the concept, definition, and importance. History and origin of insects as food, feed and medication; important insect species and insect products consumed. Edible insect ecology, conservation and management of edible insect resources; environmental opportunities of insect rearing. Nutritional composition and role of insects in food security. Insect farming: the concept, definitions, and rearing techniques. Processing edible insects for food and feed. Food safety and preservation, edible insects for livelihood security.

Practical: Survey and identification of edible and therapeutic insect species; Collection and preservation of edible and therapeutic insect specimens; Rearing techniques of edible insect species; Harvesting techniques of edible insects from natural environment; Analysis of proximate elemental composition, antioxidant and anti-nutritional properties and microbial aspects of preservation.

1. Medical and Veterinary Entomology

Content: Introduction to medical, veterinary and forensic entomology; Classification of Arthropod-borne diseases; Hematophagy, disease transmission and epidemiology; flies (Diptera) of medical and veterinary Importance; moth flies: Leishmaniasis and Bartonellosis; biting midges (Ceratapogonidae). Mosquito taxonomy, biology, and behavior; mosquito viruses: EEE, VEE, SLE, yellow fever,mosquito surveillance; malaria; horse flies, deer flies: EIA, anaplasmosis; muscid flies; Myiasis (Muscoidea); myiasis and louse flies; black flies of medical and veterinary Importance; filariasis: mansonellosis, onchocerciasis. Lice of medical and veterinary importance; rickettsial diseases: epidemic typhus, etc.; mites: rickettsial pox; mites and acariasis: mange, scabies, chiggers; spiders and scorpions; fleas (Siphonaptera) of medical and veterinary importance; plague and murine typhus. Ticks of medical and veterinary importance; lyme disease, rocky mountain spotted fever, tularemia; true bugs (Hemiptera): kissing bugs and bedbugs; chagas disease; tsetse flies; Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera of medical and veterinary importance.

Practical: Identification of arthropod Classes, Orders and Families of medical and veterinary importance; Collection, segregation, curing insect and arachnid specimens, their preservation; Management of insect and mite pests of medical and veterinary importance; Study of some practical aspects in forensic entomology.

1. Forest Entomology

Content: Introduction to forestry in the tropics, tropical forests: characteristics and types of tropical forests, management of tropical forests and the problems in their management; plantation forestry: beginnings, expansion and current status. History of tropical forest entomology, diversity of forest insects: structural and functional diversity – the feeding guilds, concept of pests, ecology of insects in forest environment, concept and functioning of ecosystem, role of insects in ecosystem processes of tropical forests: insects as primary consumers, secondary and tertiary consumers, as decomposers, as food, pollinators and other ecological interactions. Insect pests in natural forests, general pest incidence, pest outbreaks: Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, and Hymenoptera; insect pests in plantations, nursery pests, sapling pests, pests of older plantations and their impact; insect pests of stored timber, categories of wood destroying insects and their damage: termites and beetles. Population dynamics, characteristics of population growth, factors affection population growth, principles governing population dynamics, types and causes of forest insect outbreaks; general issues in forest entomology: enemies’ hypothesis, resource concentration hypothesis, pest evolution hypothesis; pest problems in plantations of indigenous vs exotic species; pest problems in monocultures vs mixed plantations. Management of tropical forest insect pests, historical development and present status of tropical forest pest management, overview of pest management options: preventive measures, remedial measures; unique features of forest pest management; constraints to forest pest management in the tropics; guidelines for the practice of forest pest management in the tropics. Insect pests in plantations: Location-specific case studies.

Practical: Collection, identification and preservation of important insect pest specimens of forest plants and some damage material; Detection of insect infestation and assessment of losses due to insect pests; Habitat management for vertebrate and insects pests; Fire control methods and devices; Familiarization with the meteorological and plant protection equipment, application of pesticides and bio-control agents in the management of insect pests in nurseries and plantations.

Plant Pathology (PL PATH) (M.Sc.)

1. Mycology

Content: Introduction, definition of different terms, basic concepts. Importance of mycology in agriculture, relation of fungi to human affairs. History of mycology. Importance of culture collection and herbarium of fungi. Somatic characters and reproduction in fungi. Modern concept of nomenclature and classification, Classification of kingdom fungi: Stramenopila and Protists. The general characteristics of protists and life cycle in the Phyla Plasmodiophoromycota, Dictyosteliomycota, Acrasiomycota and Myxomycota. Kingdom Stramenopila: characters and life cycles of respective genera under Hypochytriomycota, Oomycota and Labyrinthulomycota. Kingdom fungi: General characters, ultrastructure and life cycle patterns in representative genera under Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota; Archiascomycetes, Ascomycetous yeasts, Pyrenomycetes, Plectomycetes, Discomycetes, Loculoascomycetes, Erysiphales and anamorphs of ascomycetous fungi. Basidiomycota; general characters, mode of reproduction, types of basidiocarps and economic importance of Hymenomycetes. Uridinales and Ustilaginales; variability, host specificity and life cycle pattern in rusts and smuts. Mitosporic fungi; status of asexual fungi, their teliomorphic relationships, Molecular characterization of plant pathogenic fungi. Practical: Detailed comparative study of different groups of fungi; Collection of cultures and live specimens; Saccardoan classification and classification based on conidiogenesis; Vegetative structures and different types of fruiting bodies produced by slime molds, stramenopiles and true fungi; Myxomycotina: Fructification, plasmodiocarp, sporangia, plasmodium and aethalia. Oomycota; Somatic and reproductory structures of Pythium, Phytophthora, downy mildews and Albugo, Zygomycetes: Sexual and asexual structures of Mucor, Rhizopus, General characters of VAM fungi. Ascomycetes; fruiting structures,  Erysiphales, and Eurotiales; General identification characters of Pyrenomycetes, Discomycetes, Loculoascomycetes and Laboulbenio-mycetes, Basidiomycetes; characters, ultrastructures and life cycle patterns in Ustilaginomycetes and Teliomycetes, Deuteromycetes; Characters of Hyphomycetes and Coelomycetes and their teliomorphic and anamorphic states, Collection, preservation, culturing and identification of plant parasitic fungi; Application of molecular approaches and techniques for identification of fungal pathogens.

1. Plant Virology

Content: History and economic significances of plant viruses. General and morphological characters, composition and structure of viruses. Myco-viruses, arbo and baculo viruses, satellite viruses, satellite RNAs, phages, viroids and prions. Origin and evolution of viruses and their nomenclature and classification. Genome organization, replication in selected groups of plant viruses and their movement in host. Response of the host to virus infection: biochemical, physiological, and symptomatical changes. Transmission of viruses and virus-vector relationship. Isolation and purification of viruses. Detection and identification of plant viruses by using protein and nucleic acid based diagnostic techniques. Natural (R-genes) and engineering resistance to plant viruses. Virus epidemiology and ecology (spread of plant viruses in fields, host range and survival). Management of diseases caused by plant viruses.

Practical: Study of symptoms caused by plant viruses (followed by field visit); Isolation and biological purification of plant virus cultures; Bioassay of virus cultures on indicator plants and host differentials; Transmission of plant viruses (Mechanical, graft and vector and study of disease development); Plant virus purification (clarification, concentration, centrifugation, high resolution separation and analysis of virions), Electron microscopy for studying viral particle morphology; Antisera production, Detection and diagnosis of plant viruses with serological (ELISA), nucleic acid (Non-PCR–LAMP, Later flow micro array and PCR based techniques); Exposure to basic bio-informatic tools for viral genome analysis and their utilization in developing detection protocols and population studies (BLASTn tool, Primer designing software, Bioedit tool, Claustal X/W, MEGA Software).

1. Plant Pathogenic Prokaryotes

Content: Prokaryotic cell: History and development of Plant bacteriology, history of plant bacteriology in India. Evolution of prokaryotic life, Prokaryotic cytoskeletal proteins. Structure of bacterial cell. Structure and composition of gram negative and gram positive cell wall; synthesis of peptidoglycan; Surface proteins; Lipopolysaccaride structure; Membrane transport; fimbrae and pili (Type IV pili); Mechanism of flagellar rotatory motor and locomotion, and bacterial movement; Glycocalyx (Slayer; capsule); the bacterial chromosomes and plasmids; Operon and other structures in cytoplasm; Morphological feature of fastidious bacteria, spiroplasmas and Phytoplasmas. Growth and nutritional requirements. Infection mechanism, role of virulence factors in expression of symptoms. Survival and dispersal of phytopathogenic prokaryotes. Taxonomy of phytopathogenic prokarya: Taxonomic ranks hierarchy; Identification, Classification and nomenclature of bacteria, phytoplasma and spiroplasma. The codes of Nomenclature and characteristics. Biochemical and molecular characterization of phytopathogenic prokaryotes. Variability among phytopathogenic prokarya: general mechanism of variability (mutation); specialized mechanisms of variability (sexual like process in bacteriaconjugation; transformation; transduction); and horizontal gene transfer. Bacteriophages, L form of bacteria, plasmids and bdellovibrios: Structure; Infection of host cells; phage multiplication cycle; Classification of phages, Use of phages in plant pathology/ bacteriology, Lysogenic conversion; H Plasmids and their types, plasmid borne phenotypes.Introduction to bacteriocins. Strategies for management of diseases caused by phytopathogenic prokaryotes.

Practical: Study of symptoms produced by phytopathogenic prokaryotes; Isolation, enumeration, purification, identification and host inoculation of phytopathogenic bacteria; Stains and staining methods; Biochemical and serological characterization;  Isolation of genomic DNA plasmid; Use of antibacterial chemicals/ antibiotics; Isolation of fluorescent Pseudomonas; Preservation of bacterial cultures; Identification of prokaryotic organisms by using 16S rDNA, and other gene sequences; Diagnosis and management of important diseases caused by bacteria and mollicutes.

1. Plant Nematology

Content: Characteristics of Phylum Nematoda and its relationship with other related phyla, history and growth of Nematology; nematode habitats and diversity- plant, animal and human parasites; useful nematodes; economic importance of nematodes to

agriculture, horticulture and forestry. Gross morphology of plant parasitic nematodes; broad classification, nematode biology, physiology and ecology. Types of parasitism; nature of damage and general symptomatology; interaction of plant-parasitic nematodes with other organisms. Plant nematode relationships, cellular responses to infection by important phytonematodes; physiological specialization among phytonematodes. Principles and practices of nematode management; integrated nematode management. Emerging nematode problems, Importance of nematodes in international trade and quarantine.

Practical: Studies on kinds of nematodes- free-living, animal, insect and plant parasites; Nematode extraction from soil; Extraction of migratory endoparasites, staining for sedentary endoparasites; Examination of different life stages of important plant parasitic nematodes, their symptoms and histopathology.

1. Principles of Plant Pathology

Content: Importance, definitions and concepts of plant diseases, history and growth of plant pathology, biotic and abiotic causes of plant diseases. Growth, reproduction, survival and dispersal of important plant pathogens, role of environment and host nutrition on disease development. Host parasite interaction, recognition concept and infection, symptomatology, disease development- role of enzymes, toxins, growth regulators; defense strategies- oxidative burst; Phenolics, Phytoalexins, PR proteins, Elicitors. Altered plant metabolism as affected by plant pathogens. Genetics of resistance; ‘R’ genes; mechanism of genetic variation in pathogens; molecular basis for resistance; marker-assisted selection; genetic engineering for disease resistance.

Practical: Basic plant pathological techniques; Isolation, inoculation and purification of plant pathogens and proving Koch’s postulates; Techniques to study variability in different plant pathogens; Purification of enzymes, toxins and their bioassay; Estimation of growth regulators, phenols, phytoalexins in resistant and susceptible plants.

1. Techniques for Detection and Diagnosis of Plant Diseases

Practical: Detection of plant pathogens 1. Based on visual symptoms, 2. Biochemical test 3. Using microscopic techniques, 4. Cultural studies; (use of selective media to isolate

pathogens). 5. Biological assays (indicator hosts, differential hosts) 6. Serological

assays 7. Nucleic acid based techniques (Non-PCR–LAMP, Later flow microarray

and PCR based- multiplex, nested, qPCR, immune capture PCR, etc.); Phenotypic and genotypic tests for identification of plant pathogens; Molecular identification (16S rDNA and 16s-23S rDNA intergenic spacer region sequences-prokaryotic organisms; and eukaryotic organism by ITS region) and whole genome sequencing; Volatile compounds profiling by using GC-MS and LC-MS; FAME analysis, Fluorescence in-situ Hybridization (FISH), Flow Cytometry, Phage display technique, biosensors for detection of plant pathogens; Genotypic tools such as genome/ specific gene sequence homology comparison by BLAST (NCBI and EMBL) and electron microscopy techniques of plant virus detection and diagnosis.

1. Principles of Plant Disease Management

Content: Principles of plant disease management by cultural, physical, biological, chemical, organic amendments and botanicals methods of plant disease control, integrated control measures of plant diseases. Disease resistance and molecular approach for disease management. History of fungicides, bactericides, antibiotics, concepts of pathogen, immobilization, chemical protection and chemotherapy, nature, properties and mode of action of antifungal, antibacterial and antiviral chemicals. Label claim of fungicides. Application of chemicals on foliage, seed and soil, role of stickers, spreaders and other adjuvants, health vis-a-vis environmental hazards, residual effects and safety measures

Practical: Phytopathometry; Methods of in-vitro evaluation of chemicals, antibiotics, bio agents against plant pathogens; Field evaluation of chemicals, antibiotics, bio agents against plant pathogens; Soil solarisation, methods of soil fumigation under protected cultivation; Methods of application of chemicals and bio control agents; ED and MIC values, study of structural details of sprayers and dusters; Artificial epiphytotic and screening of resistance.

1. Epidemiology and Forecasting of Plant Diseases

Content: Epidemic concepts, simple interest and compound interest disease, historical development. Elements of epidemics and their interaction.Structures and patterns of epidemics. Modelling, system approaches and expert systems in plant pathology. Genetics of epidemics. Models for development of plant disease epidemics. Common and natural logarithms, function fitting, area under disease progress curve and correction factors, inoculum dynamics. Population biology of pathogens, temporal and spatial variability in plant pathogens. Epidemiological basis of disease management. Survey, surveillance and vigilance. Remote sensing techniques and image analysis. Crop loss assessment. Principles and pre-requisites of forecasting, systems and factors affecting various components of forecasting, some early forecasting and procedures based on weather and inoculum potential, modelling disease growth and disease prediction. Salient features of important forecasting models.

1. Disease Resistance in Plants

Content: Introduction and historical development, dynamics of pathogenicity, process of infection, variability in plant pathogens, gene centres as sources of resistance, disease resistance terminologies. Disease escape,non-host resistance and disease tolerance. Genetic basis of disease resistance, types of resistance, identification of physiological races of pathogen, disease progression in relation to resistance, stabilizing selection pressure in plant pathogens. Host defence system, morphological and anatomical resistance, pre-formed chemicals in host defence, post infectional chemicals in host defence, phytoalexins, hypersensitivity and its mechanisms. Genetic basis of relationships between pathogen and host, Gene-for-gene concept, protein-for-protein and immunization basis, management of resistance genes. Strategies for gene deployment.

1. Ecology of Soil Borne Plant Pathogens

Content: Soil as an environment for plant pathogens, nature and importance of rhizosphere and rhizoplane, host exudates, soil and root inhabiting fungi. Interaction of microorganisms. Types of biocontrol agents. Inoculum potential and density in relation to host and soil variables, competition, predation, antibiosis and fungistasis. Conducive and suppressive soils. Biological control- concepts and potentialities for managing soil borne pathogens. Potential of Trichoderma and fluorescent Pseudomonas in managing plant diseases.

Practical: Quantification of rhizosphere and rhizoplane microflora with special emphasis on pathogens; Pathogenicity test by soil and root inoculation techniques, correlation between inoculum density of test pathogens and disease incidence, demonstration of fungistasis in natural soils; Suppression of test soil-borne pathogens by antagonistic microorganisms; Isolation and identification of different biocontrol agents; Study of various plant morphological structures associated with resistance, testing the effect of root exudates and extracts on spore germination and growth of plant pathogens; Estimating the phenolic substances, total reducing sugars in susceptible and resistant plants; Estimating the rhizosphere and root tissue population of microorganisms (pathogens) in plants.

1. Chemicals and Botanicals in Plant Disease Management

Content: History and development of chemicals; definition of pesticides and related terms; advantages and disadvantages of chemicals and botanicals. Classification of chemicals used in plant disease management and their characteristics. Chemicals in plant disease control, viz., fungicides, bactericides, nematicides, antiviral chemicals and botanicals. Issues related to label claim. Formulations, mode of action and application of different fungicides; chemotherapy and phytotoxicity of fungicides. Handling, storage and precautions to be taken while using fungicides; compatibility with other agrochemicals, persistence, cost-benefit ratio, factor affecting fungicides. New generation fungicides and composite formulations of pesticides. Efficacy of different botanicals used and their mode of action. Important botanicals used against diseases. General account of plant protection appliances; environmental pollution, residues and health hazards, fungicidal resistance in plant pathogens and its management.

Practical: Acquaintance with formulation of different fungicides and plant protection appliances; Formulation of fungicides, bactericides and nematicides; In-vitro evaluation techniques, preparation of different concentrations of chemicals including botanical pesticides against pathogens; Persistence, compatibility with other agro-chemicals; Detection of naturally occurring fungicide resistant mutants of pathogen; Methods of application of chemicals.

1. Detection and Management of Seed Borne Pathogens

Content: History and economic importance of seed pathology in seed industry, plant quarantine and SPS under WTO. Morphology and anatomy of typical monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous infected seeds. Recent advances in the establishment and subsequent cause of disease development in seed and seedling. Localization and mechanism of seed transmission in relation to seed infection, seed to plant transmission of pathogens. Seed certification and tolerance limits, types of losses caused by seed-borne diseases in true and vegetatively propagated seeds, evolutionary adaptations of crop plants to defend seed invasion by seed-borne pathogens. Epidemiological factors influencing the transmission of seed-borne diseases, forecasting of epidemics through seed-borne infection. Production of toxic metabolites affecting seed quality and its impact on human, animal and plant health, management of seed-borne pathogens/ diseases and procedure for healthy seed production. Seed health testing, methods for detecting microorganism.

Practical: Conventional and advanced techniques in the detection and identification of seedborne fungi, bacteria and viruses; Relationship between seed-borne infection and expression of the disease in the field.

1. Biological Control of Plant Pathogens

Content: Concept of biological control, definitions, importance, principles of plant disease management with bioagents, history of biological control, merits and demerits of biological control. Types of biological interactions, competition: mycoparasitism, exploitation for hypovirulence, rhizosphere colonization, competitive saprophytic ability, antibiosis, induced resistance, mycorrhizal associations, operational mechanisms and its relevance in biological control. Factors governing biological control, role of physical environment, agroecosystem, operational mechanisms and cultural practices in biological control of pathogens, pathogens and antagonists and their relationship, biocontrol agents, comparative approaches to biological control of plant pathogens by resident and introduced antagonists, control of soil-borne and foliar diseases. Compatibility of bioagents with agrochemicals and other antagonistic microbes. Commercial production of antagonists, their delivery systems, application and monitoring, biological control in IDM, IPM and organic farming system, biopesticides available in market. Quality control system of biocontrol agents.

Practical: Isolation, characterization and maintenance of antagonists, methods of study of antagonism and antibiosis, application of antagonists against pathogen in-vitro and in vivo conditions; Preparation of different formulations of selected bioagents and their mass production; Quality parameters of biocontrol agents; One week exposure visit to commercial biocontrol agents production unit.

1. Integrated Disease Management

Content: Introduction, definition, concept and tools of disease management, components of integrated disease management- their limitations and implications. Development of IDM-basic principles, biological, chemical and cultural disease management. IDM in important crops- rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, chickpea, rapeseed and mustard, pearl millet, pulses, vegetable crops, fruit, plantation and spice crops.

Practical: Application of physical, biological and cultural methods; Use of chemical and biocontrol agents, their compatibility and integration in IDM. Demonstration of IDM and multiple disease management in crops of regional importance as project work.

1. Diseases of Field and Medicinal Crops

Content: Diseases of Cereal crops- Rice, wheat, barley, pearl millet, sorghum and maize. Diseases of Pulse crops- Gram, urdbean, mungbean, lentil, pigeonpea, soybean and cowpea. Diseases of Oilseed crops- Rapeseed and mustard, sesame, linseed, sunflower, groundnut, castor. Diseases of Cash crops- Cotton, sugarcane. Diseases of Fodder legume crops- Berseem, oats, guar, lucerne. Medicinal crops- Plantago, liquorice, mulathi, rosagrass, sacred basil, mentha, ashwagandha, Aloe vera.

Practical: Detailed study of symptoms and host parasite relationship of important diseases of above mentioned crops; Collection and dry preservation of diseased specimens of important crops.

1. Diseases of Fruits, Plantation and Ornamental Crops

Content: Introduction, symptoms and etiology of different fruit diseases. Factors affecting disease development in fruits like apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, cherry, walnut, almond, strawberry, citrus, mango, grapes, guava, ber, banana, pineapple, papaya, fig, pomegranate, date palm, custard apple and their management. Symptoms, mode of perpetuation of diseases of plantation crops such as tea, coffee, rubber and coconut and their management. Symptoms and life cycle of pathogens. Factors affecting disease development of ornamental plants such as roses, gladiolus, tulip, carnation, gerbera orchids, marigold, chrysanthemum and their management.

Practical: Detailed study of symptoms and host parasite relationship of representative diseases of plantation crops; Collection and dry preservation of diseased specimens of important crops.

1. Diseases of Vegetable and Spices Crops

Content:  Nature, prevalence, factors affecting disease development of tuber, bulb, leafy vegetable, crucifers, cucurbits and solanaceaous vegetables. Diseases of crops under protected cultivation. Symptoms and management of diseases of different root, tuber, bulb, leafy vegetables, crucifers, cucurbits and solanaceaous vegetable crops. Symptoms, epidemiology and management of diseases of different spice crops such as black pepper, nutmeg, saffron, cumin, coriander, turmeric, fennel, fenugreek and ginger. Biotechnological approaches in developing disease resistant transgenics.

Practical: Detailed study of symptoms and host pathogen interaction of important diseases of vegetable and spice crops

1. Post-Harvest Diseases

Content: Concept of post-harvest diseases, definitions, importance with reference to management and health, principles of plant disease management as pre-harvest and post-harvest, Types of post-harvest problems both by biotic and abiotic factors. Role of physical environment, agro-ecosystem leading to quiescent infection, operational mechanisms and cultural practices in perpetuation of pathogens, pathogens and antagonist and their relationship, role of biocontrol agents and chemicals in controlling post-harvest diseases, comparative approaches to control of plant pathogens by resident and introduced antagonists. Integrated approaches in controlling diseases and improving the shelf life of produce using nutritional, bio-control agents and other agents, control of aflatoxigenic and mycotoxigenic fungi, application and monitoring for health hazards. Study of symptoms, toxicosis of various pathogens, knowledge of Codex Alimentarious for each product and commodity. Physical and biological agents/ practices responsible for development/ prevention of post-harvest diseasestraditional and improved practices.

Practical: Isolation, characterization and maintenance of post-harvest pathogens, application of antagonists against pathogens in vivo condition; Comparative efficacy of different fungicides and bioagents; Study of different post-harvest disease symptoms on cereals, pulses, oilseed, commercial crops, vegetables, fruits and flowers; Visit to cold storage.

1. Plant Quarantine and Regulatory Measures

Content: Historical development in plant quarantine, Definitions of pest, and transgenics as per Govt. notification; Organizational set up of plant quarantine in India. Relative importance; quarantine – domestic and international. Quarantine restrictions in the movement of agricultural produce, seeds and planting material; case histories of exotic pests/ diseases and their status. Acts related to registration of pesticides and transgenics. History of quarantine legislations, Salient features of PQ Order 2003. Environmental Acts, Industrial registration; APEDA, Import and Export of bio-control agents. Identification of pest/ disease free areas; contamination of food with toxigens, microorganisms and their elimination; Symptomatic diagnosis and other techniques to detect pest/ pathogen infestations; VHT and other safer techniques of disinfestation/ salvaging of infected material. WTO regulations; non-tariff barriers; Pest risk analysis, good laboratory practices for pesticide laboratories; pesticide industry; Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures. Visit to plant quarantine station and PEQ facilities.

Nematology (NEMA) (M.Sc.)

1. Principles of Nematology

Content: Characteristics of Phylum Nematoda and its relationship with other related phyla, history and growth of Nematology; nematode habitats and diversity- plant, animal and human parasites; useful nematodes; economic importance of nematodes to agriculture, horticulture and forestry. Gross morphology of plant parasitic nematodes; broad classification, nematode biology, physiology and ecology. Types of parasitism; nature of damage and general symptomatology; interaction of plant-parasitic nematodes with other organisms. Plant nematode relationships, cellular responses to infection by important phytonematodes; physiological specialization among phytonematodes. Principles and practices of nematode management; integrated nematode management. Emerging nematode problems, Importance of nematodes in international trade and quarantine.

Practical: Studies on kinds of nematodes- free-living, animal, insect and plant parasites; Nematode extraction from soil; Extraction of migratory endoparasites, staining for sedentary endoparasites; Examination of different life stages of important plant parasitic nematodes, their symptoms and histopathology.

1. Principles of Taxonomy

Content: Introduction to history and principles of systematics and importance. Levels and functions of systematics. Identification, purpose, methods- character matrix, taxonomic keys. Descriptions- subjects of descriptions, characters, nature of characters, analogy vs homology, parallel vs convergent evolution, intra-specific variation in characters, polythetic and polymorphic taxa, sexual dimorphism. Classification of animals: Schools of classification- Phenetics, Cladistics and Evolutionary classification. Components of Biological Classification: Hierarchy, Rank, Category and Taxon. Species concepts, cryptic, sibling and etho-species, infra-specific categories. Introduction to numerical, biological and cytogenetical taxonomy. Nomenclature: Common vs Scientific names. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, criteria for availability of names, validity of names. Categories of names under consideration of ICZN. Publications, Principles of priority, and homonymy, synonymy, type concept in zoological nomenclature. Speciation, anagenesis vs cladogenesis, allopatric, sympatric and parapatric processes.

1. Structural and Functional Organization of Nematodes

Content: Introduction and general organization of nematode body; Morphology and anatomy of nematode cuticle, hypodermis, musculature and pseudocoelom. Digestive system- Structural variations of stoma, oesophagus, intestine and rectum in nematodes. Reproductive system- Variations in female and male reproductive systems, types of reproduction, spermatogenesis and oogenesis. Types and structure of excretory-secretory systems; nervous system and associated sense organs. Embryogenesis, Cell lineage and postembryonic development; Process of hatching and moulting.

Practical: Studies on variations in nematode shapes and sizes, morphological details of cuticle, cuticular markings and ornamentation, variations in stoma, oesophagus, rectum; Types and parts of female and male reproductive systems, sense organs, and

excretory system.

1. Nematode Systematics

Content: Gross morphology, principles of nematode taxonomy -levels of taxonomy, systematics vs. taxonomy, morpho-taxonomy, molecular taxonomy, identification, classification, taxonomic categories, taxonomic characters, morphometry, Zoological nomenclature, species concept and speciation (allopatric and sympatric). Taxonomic position of nematodes and their relationships with allied groups; Classification and diagnoses of nematodes up to ordinal rank (Secernentea and Adenophorea) Taxonomy of free living nematodes. Classification of plant parasitic nematodes; Order Tylenchida and diagnoses of its sub-orders, super families, families and important genera; Order Aphelenchida, Dorylaimida and Triplonchida and diagnoses of their important genera.

Practical: Collection of soil and plant samples from different habitats, processing and preservation of samples; and preparation of temporary mounts, processing of nematode specimens and permanent mounts; Preparation of en face view and TS of nematodes, perineal pattern of root knot nematodes and cone-top structure for cyst nematodes; Identification of soil and plant nematodes from nematode suspension and mounted slides; Camera lucida drawing of nematodes, measurement of nematodes using traditional as well as image analyzing software; Procedures for PCR- Taxonomy.

1. Techniques in Nematology

Content: Principles and use of light, scanning and transmission electron microscopes, and other laboratory equipments. Survey and surveillance methods; collection of soil and plant samples; techniques for extraction of nematodes from soil and plant material; estimation of population densities. Killing, fixing, clearing and mounting nematodes; measurements, preparation of perineal patterns, vulval cones of cyst nematodes, en-face views and body section of nematodes. In-vitro and in vivo culturing techniques of plant parasitic, bacteriophagous, mycophagus and omnivorous nematodes. Staining nematodes in plant tissues; microtomy for histopathological studies; collection of plant root exudates and their bioassay; preparation of plant materials for exhibition. Application of molecular techniques in Nematology.

Practical: Collection of soil and plant samples; Extraction of nematodes from soil by Baermann funnel, sieving and decanting, lutriation and sugar centrifugal methods; Extraction of cysts from soil; Extraction of nematodes from plant material; Estimation of population densities; Staining plant material for nematodes; Killing and fixing nematodes, clearing nematodes by slow and Seinhorst’s methods; Preparation of temporary and permanent mounts; Measurements, drawing, microphotography, special preparation of nematodes – perineal patterns, vulval cones, en-face and body sections; Collection of root exudates, preparation of exhibits of nematode diseased plant material, in-vitro culturing techniques of nematodes- callous culture, excised root and carrot disc techniques.

1. Nematode Diseases of Crops

Content: Diagnosis of causal organism, distribution, host range, biology and life cycle, nature of damage, symptoms, interaction with other organisms, and management of nematode diseases in different crops. Cereal crops- Ear-cockle and tundu diseases of wheat, molya disease of wheat and barley; rice root nematode, rice root-knot and cyst nematode problems, ufra and white tip diseases of rice; lesion nematodes, cyst nematodes of maize and sorghum. Pulses, Sugar, Fibre, Fodder and Oilseed crops- Pigeon pea cyst nematode, root knot nematode, reniform nematode, lesion, lance nematode, sugarbeet cyst and soybean cyst nematode problems. Vegetable crops- root-knot disease, reniform nematode, potato cyst nematode; stem and bulb nematode. Nematode problems of protected cultivation. Fruit crops- root-knot nematode, reniform nematode, slow decline of citrus. Flowersroot- knot nematode, foliar nematodes, bulb nematodes, Mushroom- nematode problems. Plantation, medicinal and aromatic crops- burrowing nematode problem of banana, spices and condiments, root-knot and lesion nematode problems of coffee and tea, red ring disease of coconut. Forests- Pine wilt disease.

Practical: Diagnosis of causal organisms; Identification of different life cycle stages; Study of symptoms and histopathology of nematode damage in different crops, study tours for field diagnosis of nematode problems.

1. Nematode Biology and Physiology

Content: Host finding and invasion, feeding, hatching, moulting; life cycle patterns in different types of nematodes. Types of reproduction, gametogenesis, embryogenesis and post embryogenesis. Chemical composition of nematodes, hydrolytic enzymes, pseudocoelom and function of transport. Physiology of digestive system, intermediary metabolism. Osmoregulation, physiology of excretory-secretory and neuromuscular systems.

Practical: Studies on embryogenesis and post-embryogenesis, hatching, moulting, life cycle development, feeding, enzymatic assay by electrophoresis.

1. Nematode Ecology

Content: Definition and scope; components of environment; evolution of nematodes; ecological classification, prevalence, distribution and dispersal of nematodes. Role of nematodes in the food web; habitat and niche characteristics; community analysis and population estimation models. Effects of abiotic and biotic factors on nematodes. Environmental extremes and nematode behaviour- aggregation, swarming, orientation, feeding and reproduction. Survival strategies of nematodes in adverse environment and absence of host. Modeling population dynamics and relations with crop performance; ecological considerations in nematode management, data interpretation and systems simulation.

Practical: Study of nematode fauna in varied agro-ecological systems; Community analysis of nematode populations; Laboratory exercises on influence of abiotic factors on movement and hatching, green-house experiments on effect of abiotic factors on nematode populations and plant growth.

1. Nematode Interactions with Other Organisms

Content: Concept of interaction and its importance in disease complexes and their management involving nematode and other organisms. Interaction of plant parasitic nematodes with wilt causing fungal pathogens and microfungi. Interaction of plant parasitic nematodes with root rot and other fungal pathogens. Interaction of plant parasitic nematodes with bacterial pathogens, other nematode species and arthropods. Virus transmission by nematodes.

Practical: Green-house experiments to study the role of plant parasitic nematodes in wilt/ rot causing fungal and bacterial pathogens.

1. Nematode Management

Content: Concepts and history of nematode management; crop loss estimation, ecological and socio-economic aspects, cost-benefit ratios and pest risk analysis. Chemical methods- nematicides, their types, classification, mode of action, applicators and application methods, antidotes, and economizing nematicidal use. Cultural practices- crop rotations and cropping sequences, fallowing, flooding, soil solarisation, time of sowing, organic amendments of soil, bio-fumigation, antagonistic and trap crops, sanitation, etc. Physical methods- use of heat, hot water treatment and other methods of disinfestations of planting material. Biological methods- concepts and terminology, use of predators and parasites as biological control agents, their mass multiplication and field use; phytotherapeutic methods – use of antagonistic plants and antinemic plant products. Genetic methods- plant resistance; legal methods- quarantine regulations; integrated nematode management- concepts and applications.

Practical: In-vitro screening of synthetic chemicals and plant products for nematicidal activity, and their application methods; Methods for screening of crop germplasm for resistance against nematodes, laboratory exercises on biocontrol potential of fungal, bacterial parasites, and predacious fungi and nematodes.

1. Beneficial Nematodes

Content: Beneficial nematode fauna – predators, parasites of insects, molluscs and other pests; Entomophilic nematodes- important groups, types of nematode- insect associations; taxonomic characteristics of nematode parasites of insects. Host-parasite relations and life cycle of mermithids, entaphelenchids, thelastomids, sphaerularids and tylenchids. Entomopathogenic nematodes- Steinernema, Heterorhabditis, Oscheius their morphological characteristics, taxonomic status, biology and mode of action. Entomopathogenic nematodes- mass multiplication techniques, formulations, field applications and efficacy, success stories. Nematodes as biological models, nematodes as indicators of pollution, role of nematodes in organic matter recycling.

Practical: Isolation, identification, mass rearing and application methods of entomopathogenic nematodes.

1. Principles of Integrated Pest Management

Content: History and origin, definition and evolution of various related terminologies. Concept and philosophy, ecological principles, economic threshold concept, and economic consideration. Tools of pest management and their integration- legislative, cultural, physical and mechanical methods; pest survey and surveillance, forecasting, types of surveys including remote sensing methods, factors affecting surveys; political, social and legal implications of IPM; pest risk analysis; pesticide risk analysis; cost-benefit ratios and partial budgeting; case studies of successful IPM programmes.

Practical: Characterization of agro-ecosystems; Sampling methods and factors affecting sampling; Population estimation methods; Crop loss assessment- direct losses, indirect losses, potential losses, avoidable losses, unavoidable losses; Computation of EIL and ETL; Crop modeling; designing and implementing IPM system.

1. Disease Resistance in Plants

Content: Introduction and historical development, dynamics of pathogenicity, process of infection, variability in plant pathogens, gene centres as sources of resistance, disease resistance terminology. Disease escape, disease tolerance, disease resistance, types of resistance, identification of physiological races of pathogens, disease progression in relation to resistance, stabilizing selection pressure in plant pathogens. Host defence system, morphological and anatomical resistance, preformed chemicals in host defence, post infectional chemicals in host defence, phytoalexins, hypersensitivity and its mechanisms. Gene-for-gene concept, protein-for-protein and immunization basis, management of resistance genes. Strategies for gene deployment.

1. Plant Quarantine, Biosafety and Biosecurity

Content: Definition of pest, pesticides and transgenics as per Govt. notification; relative importance; quarantine – domestic and international. Quarantine restrictions in the movement of agricultural produce, seeds and planting material; case histories of exotic pests/ diseases and their status. Plant protection organization in India. Acts related to registration of pesticides and transgenics. History of quarantine legislations, PQ Order 2003. Environmental Acts, Industrial registration; APEDA, Import and Export of bio-control agents. Identification of pest/ disease free areas; contamination of food with toxigens, microorganisms and their elimination; Symptomatic diagnosis and other techniques to detect pest/ pathogen infestations; VHT and other safer techniques of disinfestation/ salvaging of infected material. WTO regulations; non-tariff barriers; Pest risk analysis, good laboratory practices for pesticide laboratories; pesticide industry; Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures.

1. IPM in Protected Cultivation

Content: Characteristics of protected cultivation and tools for sustainable crop production; outline of major biotic stresses in protected cultivation including: fungi, bacteria, virus, nematode, insects and mites. Sampling and monitoring pests and diseases; epidemiology and damage relationships; loss assessment; population dynamics of biotic stress agents; factors responsible for severity of pests and diseases. Host plant resistance to pathogens and insects; management strategies for protected cultivation: disinfestation of soil and growth media; preventive, scouting and early detection; and curative measures: biological control of sap sucking pests, leaf miners; soil- and air-borne pathogens; pesticides selectivity, applications and resistance management; buzz pollination.

Practical: Visit to familiarize with pest and disease situations developing in protected cultivation; Symptomatology and damages; identification of the causes; estimation of population densities; management tactics/ approaches and recommendations; production and commercialization of biological agents.